Table 3 Comparison of gestational hypoxia parameters on offspring outcomes
Long-term gestational hypoxia (≥ 12 days): brain developmental stages 1–3 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Species | Gestational exposure | O2 (%) | Hypoxia (hours/day) | Hypoxic cycles from 21% O2 | Impact on offspring | Citations |
Rat (SD) | GD 5–21; 17 days | 10% | 8 h sleep phase | 20 cycles/hour | Age effects: At birth: Decreased birth weight Puberty: No effect on body weight Adult: No effect on body weight | [115] |
Rat (SD) | GD 3–19; 17 days | 4% | 8 h sleep phase | 60 cycles/hour | Age effects: At birth: No effect on litter size or sex distribution Puberty: Decreased body weight Adult: Decreased body weight, increased myocardial SOD1 Sex differences: Adult: Increased myocardial lipid peroxidation in hypoxic males | [116] |
Rat (SD) | GD 10–21; 12 days | 10.5% | 8 h sleep phase | 15 cycles/hour | Age effects: At birth: No effect on litter size or body weight. No oxidative stress in placenta or fetal brains. Increased maternal separation-induced USVs at PND 4 Adult: No effects on open field locomotor behavior Sex differences: At birth: Increased maternal separation-induced harmonic calls in hypoxic females | [117] |
Rat (SD) | GD 7–21; 15 days | 10% | 3 h | Sustained | Age effects: At birth: Decreased birth weight Puberty: No effect on body weight Adult: No effect on body weight | [118] |
Rat (SD) | GD 7–21; 15 days | 10% | 3 h | Sustained | Age effects: At birth: No effect on litter size, decreased birth weight | [119] |
Rat (Wistar) | GD 6–20; 15 days | 13% | 24 h | Sustained | Age effects: At birth: Increased placental weight, no effects on birth weight, fetal biometrics, litter size, or sex ratio. No oxidative stress or lipid peroxidation in hypoxic placentas | [120] |
Mouse (C57BL/6 J) | GD 6–18; 13 days | 14% | 24 h | Sustained | Sex differences: Adult: Increased oxidative stress in hypoxic males but decreased oxidative stress in hypoxic females | [121] |
Mid-term gestational hypoxia (6–9 days): brain developmental stages 2–3 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Species | Gestational exposure | O2 (%) | Hypoxia (hours/day) | Hypoxic cycles from 21% O2 | Impact on offspring | Citations |
Rat (SD) | GD 15–20; 6 days | 11% | 24 h | Sustained | Sex differences: Adult: Decreased body weight in hypoxic males | [122] |
Mouse (C57BL/6 J) | GD 10–18; 9 days | 10.5% | 24 h | Sustained | Age effects: At birth: Decreased litter size, crown to rump length, and abdominal circumference. No effects on placental weight or placental oxidative stress | [123] |
Short-term gestational hypoxia (2–5 days): brain developmental stage 3 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Species | Gestational exposure | O2 (%) | Hypoxia (hours/day) | Hypoxic cycles from 21% O2 | Impact on offspring | Citations |
Rat (Long-Evans) | GD 15–19; 5 days | 10% | 8 h—sleep phase | 10 cycles/hour | Age effects: At birth: No effect on litter size, body weights, placental weights, crown–rump length, or abdominal girth. Increased gestational length Puberty: Decreased USV calls. No effect on locomotor behavior (distance traveled or rearing) Adult: Increased bandwidth of harmonic USVs and increased oxidative stress. No effect on locomotor behaviors (distance traveled or rearing) Sex differences: Puberty: Decreased chirp USVs, chirp duration, decreased simple USVs in hypoxic females Adult: In males—increased latency to first USV and harmonic USV bandwidth with decreased chirp USVs and simple call USV intensity. In females—increased simple USV duration | Current Study |
Mouse (CD-1) | GD 14–17; 4 days | 11% | 24 h | Sustained | Age effects: At birth: Decreased birth weight. No change in placental weights or litter size | [124] |
Acute gestational hypoxia (< 1 day): brain developmental stage 3 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Species | Gestational exposure | O2 (%) | Hypoxia (hours/day) | Hypoxic cycles from 21% O2 | Impact on offspring | Citations |
Mouse (C57BL/6Â J) | GD 17 | 9% | 2Â h | Sustained | Age effects: At birth: Increased brain weight Puberty: Increased volume of ventral tegmental area, pontine central grey matter, and cerebellar white matter (PND 23) Adult: No differences in brain volume | [125] |
Mouse (C57BL/6Â J) | GD 17.5 | 5% | 2, 4, 6, or 8Â h | Sustained | Age effects: At birth: No difference in litter size or gestational length. Decreased body weight that normalized at PND 8. No differences in brain apoptosis (cortex, basal ganglia, white matter) Adult: No differences in body weight, lateral ventricle size, anterior cingulate cortical thickness, or corpus callosum white matter. Decreased hindlimb strength | [126] |