Table 2 Summary of the effects of macronutrient loads, obesity, sex and PCOS, and their interactions, on serum postprandial metabolomics profiles
Metabolite | Glucose | Lipids | Proteins | Obesity | Sex (M vs. W) | PCOS (PCOS vs. W) | Interactions |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amino acids, including aromatic and branched-chain amino acids and byproducts | |||||||
Alanine | ↑ | ↓↓ | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | |
Leucine | ↓ | ↓ | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | After proteins, obesity blunts the ↑ only in M After proteins, ↑ in M > W (control and PCOS) only in non-obese Only in PCOS, ↑ in obese > non-obese (loads as a whole) |
Valine | ↓ | ↓ | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | After proteins, obesity blunts the ↑ only in M After proteins, ↑ in M > W (control and PCOS) only in non-obese |
Isoleucine | ↓ | ↓ | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | After proteins, obesity blunts the ↑ only in M After proteins, ↑ in M > W (control and PCOS) only in non-obese |
Lysine | ↓ | = | ↑↑↑ | = | ↑ | = | After proteins, obesity blunts the ↑ in M After proteins, obesity enhances the ↑ in W (control and PCOS) After proteins, ↑ in M > W (control and PCOS) only in non-obese After glucose, obesity blunts the ↓ in M After glucose, obesity enhances the ↓ in control W Only in PCOS, ↑ in obese > non-obese (loads as a whole) |
Glutamine | ↓ | ↑ | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | |
Glutamic acid | ↓ | ↓ | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | |
Tyrosine | ↓ | ↓ | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | After proteins, obesity blunts the ↑ in M After proteins, obesity enhances the ↑ in control W |
Phenylalanine | ↓ | ↓ | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | After proteins, obesity blunts the ↑ only in M After glucose, obesity blunts the ↓ in M and mainly in PCOS Only in PCOS, ↑ in obese > non-obese (loads as a whole) |
2-Oxoisocaproic acid | ↓ | ↓ | ↑↑ | = | = | = | Obesity enhances the ↑ after proteins Obesity enhances the ↓ after glucose |
2-Oxoisovaleric acid | = | = | = | = | = | = | |
Tryptophan | = | ↓ | ↑ | = | = | = | Only in PCOS, ↑ in obese > non-obese (loads as a whole) |
Glycine | ↓ | ↓ | ↑ | = | = | = | |
Asparagine | = | = | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | |
Ornithine | ↓ | = | ↑ | = | = | = | |
Proline | ↓ | ↑ | ↑↑ | = | = | = | |
Serine | ↓ | = | ↑↑ | = | = | = | |
Threonine | ↓ | = | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | |
Amino acid-derived metabolites | |||||||
1-Methylhistidine | ↓= | ↓= | ↑↑ | = | = | = | After proteins, obesity blunts the ↑ in M After proteins, obesity enhances the ↑ in W (control and PCOS) Only in PCOS, ↑ in obese > non-obese (loads as a whole) |
Choline | = | = | = | = | = | = | |
Betaine | ↓= | ↓= | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | Opposite effects in PCOS vs. control W and M In PCOS: ↑ after glucose, ↓ after lipids and proteins |
Creatine | = | ↓ | ↑↑↑ | = | = | = | ↑ After glucose only in PCOS ↓ After lipids not in M |
Creatinine | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | = | = | = | |
Carnitine | = | = | = | = | = | = | |
Pyroglutamic acid | ↓↓ | ↑↑↑ | ↓ | = | ↓ | = | Only in non-obese, ↑ in W (control and PCOS) > M (loads as a whole) |
Short-chain fatty acids, ketone bodies, glycerol and carbohydrates | |||||||
Isobutyric acid | ↓ | ↓ | ↑↑ | = | = | = | |
Acetone | ↓ | ↑ | ↑ | = | = | = | Only in non-obese, ↑ in M > W (control and PCOS) (loads as a whole) |
Acetate | ↓= | ↓= | ↓ | = | = | = | |
3-Hydroxybutyric acid | ↓↓ | ↑↑↑ | ↓ | = | ↓ | = | |
Glycerol | ↓↓ | = | ↓↓ | = | = | = | |
Pyruvate | ↑↑ | ↓ | ↑↑ | ↑ | = | = | Blunted ↑ in non-obese PCOS but ↑↑ only in obese PCOS, mainly after glucose |
Citrate | ↑ | ↑↑ | = | = | = | = | |
Formate | = | = | = | = | = | = | |
Lactate | ↑↑↑ | ↓↓ | = | = | = | = | |
β-Glucose | ↑↑↑ | ↓= | = | ↑ | ↑ | = | ↑ After glucose and proteins mainly in obesity Blunted ↑ in non-obese PCOS but ↑↑ in obese PCOS ↑ In M > W (control and PCOS) only in non-obese (loads as a whole) |
d-Glucose | ↑↑↑ | ↓= | = | ↑ | = | = | ↑ After glucose and proteins mainly in obesity Blunted ↑ in non-obese PCOS but ↑↑ in obese PCOS |