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Fig. 1 | Biology of Sex Differences

Fig. 1

From: Maternal adverse childhood experiences impact fetal adrenal volume in a sex-specific manner

Fig. 1

Fetal adrenal volume by maternal adverse childhood experiences (ACE) group and offspring sex. Although the three-way interaction of maternal ACE group (low vs. high), offspring sex (male vs. female), and time (ultrasound 1 vs. 2) on body weight-adjusted fetal adrenal volume (cm3/kg) was not significant (\({\chi }^{2}\)= 2.48; df = 1; p = .115), our primary interest was in the pairwise comparisons of the subgroups (characterized by maternal ACE and offspring sex) at ultrasounds 1 and 2. For ultrasound 1, significant differences emerged in weight − adjusted fetal adrenal volumes between low ACE boys and high ACE boys (b = − 0.17, z = − 3.75, p < .001), low ACE boys and low ACE girls (b = 0.20, z = 4.10, p < .001), and between low ACE boys and high ACE girls (b = − 0.11, z = − 2.16; p = .031). For the second ultrasound, no significant differences emerged for any pairwise comparisons although two findings were marginal: compared to low ACE males, high ACE males (b = − 0.08; 95% CI [− 0.17, 0.02]; z = − 1.58; p = .114) and low ACE females (b = − 0.09; 95% CI [− 0.19, 0.00]; z = − 1.92; p = .055) had marginally smaller weight-adjusted FAV. The overall model adjusts for race and gestational age at ultrasound. Bar plots display the mean and standard error of weight-adjusted fetal adrenal volume stratified by maternal ACE group and offspring sex. Maternal ACE group: low = 0–1 ACEs; high = 2 + ACEs. ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05

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