Fig. 1

Sexual dimorphism with the disease occurrence, and its underlying potential immune mechanisms. It is generally believed that males are more prone to infectious diseases than females, but the latter group have a preponderance to develop autoimmune diseases. These phenotypes are shown with elbow arrows (favorable), and arrows with inhibitory lines (unfavorable). The hormonal environments in females (estrogens) and males (androgens) have been shown to influence both innate and adaptive immune cell functions. Additionally, hormonal actions on immune cells in the respective sexes can potentially be influenced by transcriptome profiles in the sex chromosomes and epigenetic modifications. Nonetheless, genetic susceptibility and exposure to environmental microbes, including alterations in the gut microbiota, if any are still the key players to trigger AIDs, but their outcomes can be modulated by sex hormones