Fig. 3

Self-efficacy improvement. a–c Pre- and post-test included the same three self-efficacy questions—one per competency area. For each question, participants rated their self-efficacy on a 10-point horizontal visual analog scale with two anchors: 0 indicating “not at all confident I can do” and10 indicating “extremely confident I can do” as per Bandura’s Guide for Constructing Self-Efficacy Scales [22]. Error bars are the standard error of the mean. Significant differences (p < 0.001) from paired t tests are represented by asterisks (*)