Table 1 Complexities in hormonal regulation of knee tissues contribute to sex-differences in severity and incidence of knee OA

●

Changes in systemic levels of sex steroids.

●

Changes in local production of hormones or their metabolites.

●

Presence of hormone receptors, their affinity for ligand, or components of their signaling pathway.

●

Distribution of hormone-responsive cells in individual tissues of the knee.

●

Physiological status, including age and the presence of disease or tissue injury.