Table 1 Considerations for design of studies of sex and cardiovascular structure and function in health and disease
1. Concepts of sex differences must be integrated into research design. | 4. The hormonal and gonadal state must be considered along with reproductive history in females. |
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2. Phenotypes are dictated by sex chromosomes and modulated by sex steroid hormones. | 5. From a statistical standpoint, studies should be powered to detect sex differences. |
3. A sex difference may be the simplest possible explanation for a particular experimental outcome. | 6. Extrapolation of experimental outcomes from one sex to the other is invalid. |